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Following a scientific approach to research should help the researcher to get to the truth about the subject of the
research. But is there such a thing as the truth? Or is the truth subjective; something that we have only con
structed in our minds? All research is based on beliefs about the world around us (the philosophical study of
what can be said to exist is called ontology) and what we can possibly discover by research. Different researchers
have different ideas about these issues.
The disagreement about the nature of knowledge or how we come to know (the appropriate name for these
matters is epistemology) has a long history and it is not restricted to research in business. Questions such as “What
exists?”, “What is knowledge?”, and “How do we acquire knowledge?” have fascinated philosophers and researchers
in many fields for over 2000 years. At this point, we will briefly discuss the most important perspectives for contem
porary research in business. We will successively deal with positivism, constructionism, critical realism, and
pragmatism. Note that in order to make our point we will sometimes exaggerate the descriptions of these research
perspectives. For this reason, experts on these matters may sometimes disapprove on what we have to say.
Positivism
In a positivist view of the world, science and scientific research is seen as the way to get at the truth – indeed, posi
tivists believe that there is an objective truth out there – to understand the world well enough so that we are able
to predict and control it. For a positivist, the world operates by laws of cause and effect that we can discern if we
use a scientific approach to research. Positivists are concerned with the rigor and replicability of their research,
the reliability of observations, and the generalizability of findings. They use deductive reasoning to put forward
theories that they can test by means of a fixed, predetermined research design and objective measures. The key
approach of positivist researchers is the experiment, which allows them to test cause‐and‐effect relationships
through manipulation and observation. Some positivists believe that the goal of research is to only describe phe
nomena that one can directly observe and objectively measure. For them, knowledge of anything beyond that –
such as emotions, feelings, and thoughts – is impossible.
Constructionism
A completely different approach to research and how research should be done is constructionism. Constructionism
criticizes the positivist belief that there is an objective truth. Constructionists hold the opposite view, namely that
the world (as we know it!) is fundamentally mental or mentally constructed. For this reason, constructionists do
not search for the objective truth. Instead, they aim to understand the rules people use to make sense of the world by
investigating what happens in people’s minds. Constructionism thus emphasizes how people construct knowledge;
it studies the accounts people give of issues and topics and how people get to these accounts. Constructionists are
particularly interested in how people’s views of the world result from interactions with others and the context in
which they take place. The research methods of constructionist researchers are often qualitative in nature. Focus
groups and unstructured interviews allow them to collect rich data, oriented to the contextual uniqueness of the
world that is being studied. Indeed, constructionists are often more concerned with understanding a specific case
than with the generalization of their findings. This makes sense from the viewpoint of the constructionist; there
is no objective reality to generalize about.
Critical realism
Between these two opposed views on research and on how research should be done, there are many intermediary
viewpoints. One of these viewpoints is critical realism. Critical realism is a combination of the belief in an exter
nal reality (an objective truth) with the rejection of the claim that this external reality can be objectively meas
ured; observations (especially observations on phenomena that we cannot observe and measure directly, such as
satisfaction, motivation, culture) will always be subject to interpretation. The critical realist is thus critical of our
ability to understand the world with certainty. Where a positivist believes that the goal of research is to uncover
the truth, the critical realist believes that the goal of research is to progress toward this goal, even though it is
impossible to reach it. According to the critical realist viewpoint, measures of phenomena such as emotions, feel
ings, and attitudes are often subjective in nature and the collection of data is, generally speaking, imperfect and
flawed. The critical realist also believes that researchers are inherently biased. They argue that we therefore need
to use triangulation across multiple flawed and erroneous methods, observations, and researchers to get a better
idea of what is happening around us.
Pragmatism
A final viewpoint on research that we will discuss here is pragmatism. Pragmatists do not take on a particular
position on what makes good research. They feel that research on both objective, observable phenomena and
subjective meanings can produce useful knowledge, depending on the research questions of the study. The focus
of pragmatism is on practical, applied research where different viewpoints on research and the subject under
study are helpful in solving a (business) problem. Pragmatism describes research as a process where concepts and
meanings (theory) are generalizations of our past actions and experiences, and of interactions we have had with
our environment. Pragmatists thus emphasize the socially constructed nature of research; different researchers
may have different ideas about, and explanations for, what is happening around us. For the pragmatist, these dif
ferent perspectives, ideas, and theories help us to gain an understanding of the world; pragmatism thus endorses
eclecticism and pluralism. Another important feature of pragmatism is that it views the current truth as tenta
tive and changing over time. In other words, research results should always be viewed as provisional truths.
Pragmatists stress the relationship between theory and practice. For a pragmatist, theory is derived from practice
(as we have just explained) and then applied back to practice to achieve intelligent practice. Along these lines,
pragmatists see theories and concepts as important tools for finding our way in the world that surrounds us. For
a pragmatist, the value of research lies in its practical relevance; the purpose of theory is to inform practice.
Conclusion
You may have asked yourself repeatedly, “Why do I need to know this?” One answer is that we believe that it is
important for you to know that there is more than one viewpoint on what makes good research. Knowledge of
epistemology may help you to relate to and understand the research of others and the choices that were made in
this research. Different researchers have different ideas about the nature of knowledge or on how we come to know (indeed, the scientific approach to research is only one – albeit important – view on what “good” research is).
These different ideas translate into different approaches that are taken to research, into different research designs,
and into different choices regarding the research methods used.
Another answer to the question “Why do I need to know this?” is that you will probably have noticed that
you prefer one research perspective over the other perspectives. Understanding your personal ideas on research
and how it should be done allows you to determine which kinds of research questions are important to you and
what methods for collecting and analyzing data will give you the best answer to these questions. It will also help
you to make informed decisions during the research process, to have a clear understanding about what the find
ings of your study (do and do not) mean, and to understand the type of conclusions that your research approach
allows you to draw. Like this, it helps you to put your research and research findings in perspective.
In sum, your viewpoint on the nature of knowledge and on how we come to know will have a strong influence
on the research questions you ask, your research design, and the research methods you will use. The rest of this
book is primarily concerned with the development of research questions, research design, and research methods,
and much less with the foregoing philosophical issues. However, it is important that every so often you consider
the philosophical underpinnings of your research questions, your research design, and your research methods.
This is important since the value of your research findings depends on how well they relate to the methods you
have used, the design you have chosen, the questions you have asked, and the research perspective you have taken.
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